Embryo modification and implantation

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to constructs and methods used to enhance the attachment and implantation of an embryo. It is shown that modified glycolipids and glycolipid-attachment molecule constructs can be used to modify embryos, or localised to target tissues, to enhance interaction between the embryo and the target tissue, (typically the endometrium). The invention may advantageously be used to enhance implantation of embryos in the uterus, for example, in IVF treatments.

This invention relates to constructs and methods used to enhance the implantation of an embryo into the uterus. In particular, the invention relates to modified embryos which have been modified by the insertion into the cell membrane (or zona pellucida) of the embryo of constructs which have a binding affinity for mucus or cell membrane surfaces, or enhance cellular interactions.

BACKGROUND

Each year 15% of couples seek medical advice because of difficulties becoming pregnant (WHO 1997). Sub-fertility is therefore currently one of the most frequent health concerns facing the population aged 25-45 years. For the past two decades, in vitro fertilisation (IVF) has provided an effective form of assistance for a large proportion of these couples. Indeed, IVF now accounts for 1.3% of all live births in Europe (Nygren et al. 2001) and 1.7% of all live births in Australasia (Hurst et al. 2001).

From the inception of routine IVF in 1978, pregnancy rates have risen steadily to levels considered normal for the fertile population (approximately 25% per attempt). The quest to break through this physiological barrier is driven by the significant financial and emotional cost for each IVF treatment for individuals.

Failure of embryos to implant into the lining of the uterus (endometrium) during an IVF treatment cycle is widely accepted by health professionals as the most significant limiting factor to improving success rates. The scale of embryo wastage following transfer into IVF patients is enormous, such that 80-85% of embryos fail to result in a pregnancy (Blake et al 2002). Recent analysis of daily urine levels of human chronic gonadotrophin (hCG) in women undergoing an IVF cycle, demonstrated that implantation was detected in as many as 60% of the cycles (Simon et a/1999). Of all embryos transferred in an IVF, 40% fail to implant.

There are two broad reasons for failure of implantation following replacement of apparently viable embryos. The first involves intrinsic embryonic factors that reflect retarded development or deficiencies in the health of the blastocyst itself and its ability to hatch (Gott et al 1990, Plachot 1992, van Kooij et al 1996). The second relates to extrinsic factors that imply a lack of implantation receptivity in the endometrium (Edwards 1986, Yaron 1994). Moreover, successful implantation is dependent on the synchrony of embryonic development and endometrial maturation that is largely controlled by the ovarian hormone milieu.

Recently it has become apparent that fertility drugs used for the super-ovulation of women undergoing IVF are predominantly responsible for the compromised implantation receptivity observed on both sides of the embryonic/maternal interface. Ertzeid and Storeng demonstrated the detrimental effects of gonadotropins on implantation using a series of cross-over embryo transfer experiments (Ertzeid et al. 2001). Embryos from super-ovulated and non-stimulated females were transferred to separate uterine horns in the same super-ovulated or non-stimulated pseudo-pregnant recipient mice. A significant decrease in implantation was observed in the uterine horns receiving embryos from super-ovulated donors and even more dramatically in both horns of super-ovulated recipients.

Highly elevated concentrations of estrogen result from ovarian stimulation in IVF. These are suspected to alter the cascade of hormonal events and subsequent expression of cytokines that the oocytes, embryos and uterine endometrium would ordinarily be exposed to in an unstimulated menstrual cycle. Add to this the physiological challenge of in vitro culture, largely devoid of growth factors, and it is not unexpected that IVF derived embryos might be compromised at the time of implantation.

Despite substantial advances in the recovery and maturation of multiple occytes from unstimulated cycles, the practice of oocyte in vitro maturation (IVM) is as yet clinically unaccepted. With the prospect that super-ovulation will remain the mainstay of IVF, other approaches to improving implantation rates continue to be explored.

The development of physiological based culture media constituents has gone some way to improving the development of embryos in culture for up to 6 days. This extended culture enables self-selection of the most viable embryos for transfer, but as a consequence this approach has a high attrition rate of embryos. Co-culture of embryos on a mono- or bi-layer of support cells (e.g. endometrial cells) has also provided a method for improving the development of embryos in culture presumably via the stimulus of growth factors. More directly the addition of a variety of growth factors to media has been explored and shown to be of benefit (Sjoblom et al. 2000).

Maintaining a receptive endometrium through administration of human chorionic gonadotropin or progesterone has been practiced since the early days of IVF. In fact only after additional progesterone support was given in the luteal phase of the cycle, did the world's first IVF pregnancies result. It has long been recognised that the elevated estrogen profiles produced by the fertility drugs effectively advance the endometrial tissue dating by approximately one day (Noyes et al., 1950; Pittaway et al. 1983; Garcia et al. 1984). Compound this with the fact that embryos are routinely transferred into the uterus at the 2-8 cell stage (48-72 hrs prematurely to what occurs naturally) and it is clear that IVF results in an asynchronous environment for implantation.

Implantation of a hatched blastocyst is described as consisting of three phases:

-   -   a) apposition— where the embryo comes into initial physical         contact with the glycoconjugate coat of the endometrial         epithelium (called the glycocalyx).     -   b) adhesion— where the embryo undergoes cell to cell, and cell         to matrix binding with molecules derived from the apical cells         on the endometrium.     -   c) invasion— where the embryo penetrates through the epithelial         layer of the endometrium by intruding between cell junctions as         occurs in the human or by displacement of the cells found in         some animals (e.g. mice).

Super-ovulation has been postulated to alter electronegative properties of the glycocalyx and apical cell surface of the endometrium. In this way; fertility drugs may reduce effective apposition and adhesion of a transferred embryo (Ronnberg et al. 1985).

At least two therapeutic approaches to improving implantation rates in IVF embryos have been practiced in humans. The first draws on the observation that inclusion of the glycoaminoglycan, hyaluronan, in the media containing embryos for transfer, results in a higher implantation rate than media devoid of this polysaccharide (Gardner et al. 1999). The concentration of hyaluronan increases in the uterus at the time of implantation in the mouse (Zorn et al. 1995) and is suggested to facilitate implantation by a variety of means such as increasing cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesion and indirectly through promotion of angiogenesis. Despite a lack of published trials in humans, hyaluronate is now present in a number of commercially available embryo transfer media.

One therapy that has undergone clinical trials and is described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,196,965, is the use of a fibrin sealant. The first experiments with a fibrin sealant were carried out in 1981, and by 1988 it had been proven safe to use in humans (Rodrigues et al. 1988).

U.S. Pat. No. 6,196,965 is based on the technique used in a randomised clinical trial published in 1992 (Feichtinger et al. 1992). Embryos are transferred in a catheter, sandwiched between small quantities of thrombin/aprotinin and then fibrin. The results of the trial demonstrated no significant difference in pregnancy rate between the control and treatment group (546 patients), but a significant decrease in ectopic pregnancies in the fibrin sealant group.

The rationale and theoretical basis for the two therapeutic approaches described above are different. Hyaluronate is added to transfer media in the hope that it will induce a more physiologically receptive environment for implantation. There is, however, an absence of direct evidence at the molecular level proving this hypothesis. Fibrin sealant therapy on the other hand, is used to encase the embryos in an adhesive plug that will theoretically be glued onto the endometrium. Expulsion of embryos from the uterine cavity by muscular contraction and avoidance of ectopic pregnancy was the predominant motivation for the fibrin sealant in the Feichtinger trial (Feichtinger et al. 1990), although other investigators have hypothesised that fibrin would improve the adhesion phase of implanting embryos (Rodrigues et al. 1988).

In addition to the previously described therapeutic approaches, the specification for international application no. PCT/US98/15124 (published as WO 99/05255) describes the enhancement of implantation by contacting the embryo with a lipid-modified adhesion molecule so as to modify the development of the embryo. The technique of “protein painting” embryos with glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) linked Qa-2 proteins to increase the cell division rate is described.

Protein painting is a method for modifying the external antigens of cell membranes without gene transfer. The method exploits the ability of GPI linked proteins to spontaneously anchor to cell membrane via their lipid tails. The method described in the specification for international application no. PCT/US98/15124 (WO 99/05255) requires that a naturally occurring (or genetically altered) protein is inserted into an embryo membrane with an attached GPI lipid tail. Isolated GPI-anchored proteins are stated as having an unusual capacity to reintegrate with a cell-surface membrane. The molecules that can be used for modifying an embryo in this way are therefore confined to a rather limited group.

As described herein, the inventors have now found that embryos can be modified with a range of selected synthesised molecules (modified glycolipids and glycolipid-attachment molecule constructs) and have the ability to bind with mucus, and/or mucus components, and/or cell membranes. The molecules are prepared exogenously by chemical or biological processes.

Not only has the modification of embryos by the method of the invention been successfully demonstrated in an in vitro culture system, but animals have given birth to healthy offspring derived from modified embryos. Embryos prepared in accordance with the invention appear to be developmentally indistinguishable from their unmodified counterparts.

It is an object of this invention to provide a modified embryo for the enhanced implantation of the embryo into the endometrium of an animal, or to at least provide the public with a useful choice.

STATEMENTS OF INVENTION

In a first aspect of the invention there is provided a glycolipid-inserted embryo for the preparation of an embryo modified for enhancing the implantation of the embryo into the endometrium of an animal, where:

-   -   the glycolipid-inserted-embryo has an exogenously modified         glycolipid having lipid tails inserted into a cell membrane of         the embryo or into the zona pellucida of the embryo; and     -   the glycolipid has been modified to incorporate a binding part         wherein said binding part is adapted to enable binding to an         attachment molecule.

Preferably, the glycolipid has been modified to incorporate the binding part prior to the insertion of its lipid tails into the cell membranes of the embryo or into the zona pellucida of the embryo.

In a second aspect of the invention there is provided an embryo modified for enhancing the implantation of the embryo into the endometrium of an animal, where:

-   -   the embryo has an attachment molecule which is capable of         attaching to the endometrium; and     -   the attachment molecule is linked to the embryo by an         exogenously modified glycolipid having lipid tails inserted into         a cell membrane of the embryo or into the zona pellucida of the         embryo; and     -   the attachment molecule and the glycolipid have each been         modified to incorporate a binding part adapted to enable the         attachment molecule and the glycolipid to be bound together via         their respective binding parts either directly or through a         bridging molecule.

Preferably, the modification to the glycolipid is to the carbohydrate portion of the glycolipid.

Preferably the attachment molecule is a molecule known or adapted to interact with the endometrium, mucus, mucin, or other endogenous or exogenously provided components of mucus. More preferably the attachment molecule is a known endometrial attachment molecule.

In one embodiment of the invention the binding interaction between the attachment molecule and the glycolipid are bound by way of non-covalent binding interactions including ionic, van de Waals, water exclusion, electrostatic, hydrogen bonding and chelation binding or via covalent bonding.

In one embodiment of the invention the binding interaction between the attachment molecule and the glycolipid is avidin-biotin binding. In one preferred embodiment the binding part of the glycolipid comprises biotin and the binding part of the attachment molecule comprises avidin. In an alternative preferred embodiment the binding part of the glycolipid comprises avidin and the binding part of the attachment molecule comprises biotin.

In one embodiment of the invention the binding interaction between the attachment molecule and the glycolipid is through a bridging molecule. The bridging molecule may comprise avidin in the case of the binding part of both the attachment molecule and the glycolipid comprising biotin. Alternatively, in the case of the binding part of both the attachment molecule and the glycolipid comprising avidin, the bridging-molecule may comprise biotin.

In one embodiment of the invention the binding interaction between the attachment molecule and the glycolipid may be a chelation interaction. The binding parts of the attachment molecule and the glycolipid may therefore be bridged by a chelated metal ion (e.g. Co²⁺, Ni²⁺ or Cu²⁺) and a poly-histidine recombinant protein. The chelator may be attached covalently or non-covalently (e.g. via biotin or avidin) to the glycolipid.

The glycolipid may be any glycolipid capable of inserting its lipid tails into the cell membranes of the embryo or into the zone pellucida of the embryo such as phosphoglycerides or sphingolipids. The glycolipid may be a natural molecule or a modified (e.g. biotinylated) glycolipid. Preferably the modified glycolipid is a biotinylated glycolipid either of the ganglioside class that contains sialic acid groups, or the neutral class that contains galactose.

The attachment molecule may be any molecule that has a binding affinity for molecules on cell membranes (e.g. receptor sites and blood group related antigens) including their mucus coat. Preferably the cell membrane is endometrial. In particular, the attachment molecule is preferably a protein, a peptide (such as poly L-lysine) a carbohydrate, an acyl group, a polymer, or an immunoglobulin such as immunoglobulin G (IgG) or a lectin. Alternatively, the attachment molecule may be a synthetic molecule (e.g. polyvinyl pyrrolidine, or an acyl group) which reacts with molecules expressed on cell membranes or on the mucus layer covering the cell membrane. The attachment molecule can itself be a glycolipid or glycolipid conjugate.

In a third aspect of the invention there is provided a method of preparing the glycolipid-inserted-embryo of the first aspect of the invention including the step:

-   -   contacting a glycolipid with an embryo, where the glycolipid has         been exogenously modified to incorporate a binding part, wherein         said binding part is adapted to enable binding to an attachment         molecule either directly or through a bridging molecule, so that         the lipid tails of the glycolipid insert into a cell membrane of         the embryo or into the zona pellucida of the embryo.

In a fourth aspect of the invention there is provided a method of preparing the modified embryo of the second aspect of the invention including the steps;

-   -   contacting an attachment molecule with a glycolipid, where the         attachment molecule and the glycolipid have each been modified         to incorporate a binding part adapted to enable the attachment         molecule and the glycolipid to bind together via their         respective binding parts either directly or through a bridging         molecule to provide a glycolipid-attachment molecule construct;         and then     -   contacting the attachment molecule bound to the glycolipid         (glycolipid-attachment molecule construct) with an embryo so         that the lipid tails of the glycolipid insert into the cell         membranes of the embryo or into the zona pellucida of the         embryo:

Or including the steps:

-   -   contacting a glycolipid with an embryo, where the glycolipid has         been exogenously modified to incorporate a binding part adapted         to enable binding to an attachment molecule either directly or         through a bridging molecule, so that the lipid tails of the         glycolipid insert into a cell membrane of the embryo or into the         zona pellucida of the embryo; and then     -   contacting the glycolipid-inserted-embryo with an attachment         molecule, modified to incorporate a binding part wherein said         binding part is adapted to enable binding to the binding part of         the glycolipid either directly or through a bridging molecule.

Preferably the glycolipid, has been modified to incorporate a binding part comprising biotin and the attachment molecule has been modified to incorporate a binding part comprising avidin.

Alternatively, the glycolipid has been modified to incorporate a binding part comprising avidin and the attachment molecule has been modified to incorporate a binding part comprising biotin.

In the case of binding of the glycolipid to the attachment molecule through a bridging molecule, It is preferred that the bridging molecule comprises avidin and that both the glycolipid and the attachment molecule have been modified to incorporate binding parts comprising biotin.

In a fifth aspect of the invention there is provided a method of enhancing the implantation of an embryo into the endometrium of an animal, preferably a human, or domesticated animal, comprising the steps:

-   -   preparing a modified embryo according to the second aspect of         this invention, and     -   transferring the modified embryo to the uterus of the animal.

In one embodiment of the invention the modified embryo is prepared from a species, hybrid or variety of animal that is the same as the species, hybrid or variety of animal, to the uterus of which it is transferred. In an alternative embodiment, the species, hybrid or variety differ.

In a sixth aspect of the invention there is provided a glycolipid-attachment molecule construct when used for generating a modified embryo comprising a glycolipid modified to incorporate a binding part and an attachment molecule modified to incorporate a binding part wherein the respective binding parts are adapted to enable the modified glycolipid and the modified attachment molecule to bind each other either directly or indirectly through a bridging molecule.

In a seventh aspect of the invention there is provided a method of enhancing the implantation of an embryo into the endometrium of an animal including the steps of:

-   -   introducing a construct of the sixth aspect of the invention         into the uterus of the animal so that the construct becomes         localised to the endometrium; and then     -   transferring the embryo to the uterus of the animal.

In an eighth aspect the invention provides a kit for use in enhancing the implantation of an embryo of an animal comprising one or more preparations of a glycolipid-attachment molecule construct of the sixth aspect of the invention.

While the invention is broadly defined as above, those persons skilled in the art will appreciate that it is not limited thereto and that it also includes embodiments of which the following description provides examples. In addition, the present invention will be better understood from reference to the figures of the accompanying drawings.

FIGURES

FIG. 1— Schematic legend

FIG. 2— Schematic representation of natural glycolipid insertion. A naturally occurring glycolipid (e.g. glycolipid A or Leb^(b)) is inserted into a cell membrane (e.g. RBC, embryonic cell or endometrial cell).

FIG. 3— Schematic representation of biotinylated glycolipid insertion. A biotinylated glycolipid (BioG) is inserted into a cell membrane (e.g. RBC, embryonic, endometrial cell).

FIG. 4 a— Schematic representation of terminal an attachment molecule (synthetic carbohydrate) and a glycolipid bound together. A biotinylated glycolipid (e.g. BioG) is inserted into a cell membrane, conjugated to an avidin molecule and a biotinylated synthesised blood group A antigen (e.g. Atri-PAA) is attached.

FIG. 4 b— Schematic representation of an attachment molecule (IgG) and a glycolipid bound together. A biotinylated glycolipid (e.g. BioG) is inserted into a cell membrane, conjugated to an avidin molecule and a biotinylated IgG is attached.

FIG. 4 c— Schematic representation of an attachment molecule (lectin) and a glycolipid bound together. A biotinylated glycolipid (e.g. BioG) is inserted into a cell membrane, conjugated to an avidin molecule and a biotinylated lectin is attached.

FIG. 5— Schematic representation of the interaction between a modified embryo and a cell type. A BioG transformed cell of an embryo is conjugated to avidin and a biotinylated specific antibody (e.g. BiolgG^(A,B)). The resulting antibody transformed cell is then exposed to another cell type (RBC, embryo) expressing the corresponding antigen (e.g. blood group A or B) resulting in adhesion between the two cell types.

FIG. 6— Schematic representation of the interaction between a modified embryo and a cell type. A BioG transformed cell of an embryo is conjugated to avidin and a biotinylated lectin (e.g. Bio-UE) is attached. The resulting lectin transformed cell is then exposed to another cell type (e.g. endometrial) expressing the corresponding antigen resulting in adhesion between the two cell types.

FIG. 7— Schematic representation of BioG/Av/BiolgG insertion into embryos. Adhesion is determined by reaction with antibody sensitised cells (IgG bearing) via anti-human Ig.

FIG. 8 a— Schematic representation of one mechanism for demonstrating the adhesive protein model using BiolgG^(A,B) or BioG/Av transformed mRBCs (murine red cells), and mouse embryos. Mouse embryos (right) will attach to the BiolgG^(A,B) transformed cells (eg RBCs) (left).

FIG. 8 b— Schematic representation of one mechanism for demonstrating the adhesive protein model using BiolgG^(A,B) or BioG/Av transformed mRBCs, and mouse embryos. Mouse embryos (right) that have been exposed to BiolgG^(A,B) (sensitised) will attach to the Bio/Av transformed cells (left).

FIG. 9 a— Schematic representation of BioUE adhesion model showing direct interaction between a BioUE transformed embryo (left) and H antigen bearing endometrial cells or red cells (right)

FIG. 9 b— Schematic representation of BioUE transformed embryos (left) reacting with group O secretor mucus as determined by inhibition of reactivity of BioUE transformed embryos with group O red cells (human red cells—hRBC).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The following description of this invention relates primarily to the use of biotin/avidin binding. It is important to note that other combinations of attachment molecule and glycolipid modified to incorporate a binding part which allow high affinity conjugation (i.e. covalent or non-covalent bonding) between the attachment molecule and glycolipid are suitable.

Terms or expressions used to describe this invention are defined as follows:

-   -   i. endometrium— The tissue lining the internal surface of the         uterus. It is this layer of epithelial cells and extracellular         matrix (i.e. mucus) that the implanting embryo comes into first         contact with. The epithelial and underlying stromal cell layer         cyclically thickens, secretes mucus and is shed from the body         under the hormonal influence of the menstrual cycle.         -   Attachment to the endometrium lining may be by interaction             between the attachment molecule and one or more components             of the endometrium, including membranes of the epithelial             cells, mucus, mucin components of the mucus, or an             exogenously introduced component of the mucus.     -   ii. zona pellucida— The glycoprotein coat that surrounds the         mammalian oocyte (egg) and embryo from the 1-cell to blastocyst         (6 day old) stage of development. Prior to embryo attachment and         implantation, the zona pellucida is shed from the embryo by a         number of mechanisms including proteolytic degradation. The zona         pellucida functions initially to prevent entry into the oocyte         by more than one sperm, then later to prevent premature adhesion         of the embryo before its arrival into the uterus.     -   iii. attachment molecule— Any carbohydrate or oligosaccharide,         glycolipid, glycoconjugate, protein or synthetic molecule that         can interact with one or more components of the targeted tissue         (e.g. endometrium) to localise the attachment molecule to the         tissue. Desirably the attachment molecule will interact with         endometrium and not the embryo.     -   The attachment molecule may be selected from natural or         synthetic carbohydrates or oligosaccharides, glycolipids,         glycoconjugates proteins, peptides, antibodies, lectins,         polymers such as polyvinyl pyrrolidine, a1d functionally         equivalent derivatives thereof.     -   iv. glycolipid— Any lipid-containing carbohydrate, including         phosphoglycerides (e.g. glycosylphosphatidylinositol) and         sphingolipids (e.g. glycosyl ceramides, cerebroside sulphate,         and gangliosides).     -   v. binding part— The portion of the attachment molecule or of         the glycolipid that interacts (or docks) with the attachment         molecule or glycolipid respectively, or with a bridging         molecule, to provide a non-covalent or covalent bond between the         binding part and the attachment molecule, glycolipid, or         bridging molecule, thereby providing a glycolipid-attachment         molecule construct.     -   vi. bridging molecule— a molecule that links the binding part of         the glycolipid with the binding part of the attachment molecule.         For example, avidin (interacting with biotin on either the         glycolipid or the attachment molecule), or a chelator         (interacting with a poly-histidine).     -   vii. biotin— Biotin is a water-soluble vitamin (H). It consists         of fused imidazolinone and thiophan rings with a pentanoate         side-chain attached to the latter. Biotin has an extremely high         affinity to bind the protein avidin via its imidazolidine ring.         The use of the term “biotin” in the description is intended to         be understood to include derivatives of biotin with functional         equivalence.     -   viii. avidin (Av)— Avidin derived from chicken egg white is a         glycoprotein with a molecular mass of 67 kDa. It contains four         identical sub-units, each bearing a biotin-binding site. The use         of the term “avidin” in the description is intended to be         understood to include derivatives of avidin with functional         equivalence.     -   ix. Chelation— Chelation is defined as the strong binding that         occurs between chelated metal ions and proteins. Certain         chemical groups called ligands, such as iminodiacetate and         nitrilotriacetate, form a stable metal coordination complex (or         metal chelate) with a divalent transition metal ion eg Ni²⁺,         Co²⁺ or Cu²⁺. Peptides containing poly-histidine residues         strongly bind to such a metal chelate by participation of         imidazole side-chains in chelation.     -   x. BioG (Biotinylated glycolipid)— Biotin coupled to a         glycolipid.     -   xi. BiolgG (Biotinylated Immunoglobulin G)— Biotin coupled to         immunoglobulin G. When the antibody has specificity this is         indicated as a superscript. For example BiolgG^(D),         BiolgG^(Aleb), BiolgG^(A,B) and BiolgG^(Lab) are biotinylated         antibodies directed against the D, ALe^(b), AB and Le^(b)         antigens respectively.     -   xii. Lectin— is a sugar-binding protein of non-immune origin         that agglutinates cells or reacts with glycoconjugates.

Glycolipids can insert into cell membranes without damaging cells. The invention provides for the insertion of synthetic molecules (including exogenously prepared glycolipid-attachment molecule constructs) into the glycoprotein coat of early embryos (zona pellucida) and the lipid bi-layer membrane of embryo cells that are involved in embryo implantation.

While this technology is applicable to embryo implantation in a wide variety of animals, it is most relevant to humans. However, this invention is not limited to human embryo modification and implantation. In particular inter species transfer, embryo modification and implantation is contemplated.

One or several intercellular interactions can be targeted for improvement using the technology of this invention. This may be a direct adhesion mechanism, or other mitotic stimulus or cell recognition events. While the attachment molecule and glycolipid may be derived from natural or synthetic sources, the assembly of the attachment molecule and the glycolipid is synthetic i.e. performed at least in part exogenously. The covalent or non-covalent, direct or indirect, attachment of the attachment molecule to the glycolipid may occur either before or after the insertion of the glycolipid into the cell membrane.

One combination that employs biotin/avidin binding is a biotinylated glycolipid as the primary insertion molecule, an avidin bridging molecule, and a biotinylated attachment molecule (in this case an antibody or lectin or carbohydrate). The insertion process operates by exploiting the high binding affinity of avidin for biotinylated molecules, essentially forming a sandwich complex. Firstly, the biotinylated glycolipid is inserted into the cell membrane to provide an anchor for the application of subsequent molecules. Secondly, the inserted cell membrane is treated with avidin that binds to the biotinylated glycolipid. The final phase involves conjugation of the inserted molecules with the biotinylated endometrial adhesion molecule. To demonstrate this invention, the attachment molecules are the immunoglobulin G antibody, a lectin (Ulex europeaus) and glycolipid. However, it must be emphasised that these molecules could be substituted by any one of a variety of natural or synthetic molecules.

Immunoglobulin G and lectin were chosen for development of the invention because of the ease in which molecular insertion and cell adhesion between two cell types can be confirmed using serological techniques. Preliminary development and proof of principle for each phase of the invention was carried out using human RBCs. Essentially the red cell membrane is a fluid membrane not too dissimilar to the embryo membrane, but much easier to obtain and handle. Thereafter, the insertion technique was tested on mouse embryos ranging from the 2-cell to blastocyst stage of development.

At each developmental phase, it was important to investigate the potential risk of detrimental effects of the invention on embryonic development and maternal health. Initially, the morphological development of treated embryos was compared with control embryos cultured in vitro. The outcome of normal live births from transferred treated embryos into recipient mice provides evidence of the safety of the invention. Finally, the ongoing reproductive performance of the treated offspring proves that no lasting detrimental effects are present.

There are several steps in the practice and demonstration of the utility of this invention;

-   -   Inserting natural glycolipids which may be potential         adhesion/communication molecules into embryo membranes (in         particular thorough carbohydrate-carbohydrate interactions, or         through carbohydrate-protein interactions);     -   Inserting modified (biotinylated) glycolipids in embryo         membranes as a mechanism to attach biotinylated molecules         through an avidin bridge;     -   Attaching IgG membrane/mucus adhesion molecules to embryo         membranes;     -   Attaching lectin membrane/mucus adhesion molecules to embryo         membranes;     -   Proving the embryo is unharmed by the processes above.

Adhesion of embryo's to cell membranes was proven initially by reactivity against red cells and secondarily against endometrial cells. For all intents and purposes red cells are equivalent to endometrial cells as they are of a similar size and are both fluid membranes. In some instances red cells were considered as being “surrogate” endometrial cells. A serological technique known as rosetting (Indiveri et al 1979), was used to demonstrate the adhesive capacity of the embryo's which had been modified with adhesive proteins (eg antibodies or lectins) with other cells. This was either done directly where the attached binding protein reacted with the corresponding antigen on the red/endometrial cells or through a bridge such as anti-IgG. In this way it was possible to prove that not only had the adhesion molecule been successfully inserted into the embryo, but that an artificial adhesion between two cell types had been created. For the purposes of demonstration the specificity of the antibodies selected were those chosen to react with red cells, or for which glycolipid antigens existed which could be inserted into cells to make them express the desired antigen. In the actual application of this technology red cell specific antibodies/lectins would be replaced with antibodies that detect antigens on the endometrial cells and/or mucins. The specificity of the antibodies or lectins which can be used is limited only by availability.

In order to insert molecules into cell membranes biotinylated glycolipids (BioG; Example 1) and biotinylated antibodies (BiolgG; example 2) had to be prepared (when they could not be purchased). The insertion phenomenon using BioG and avidin concentrations were optimised using red cells (example 3).

Insertion Media

Stock glycolipids for insertion were prepared in a solvent free saline (see Example 4) to ensure protection from the reported detrimental effects of alcohols in sensitive embryonic cells (Lau et al. 1991). The stock solution containing saline suspended (micelles) of glycolipids was diluted in various cell culture media or saline for insertion experiments. The results in Example 5, are in agreement with other investigators that the presence of serum, plasma or detergents is unnecessary for insertion to occur (Zhang et al. 1992). In contrast with previous reports, the presence of albumin in the M2 media in Example 5, does not impede the insertion process. Therefore, the insertion solution is effective in culture media with and without the presence of protein. Examples 6, 7 and 8 clearly demonstrate successful insertion of glycolipids into endometrial cells and embryo's.

Inserting natural glycolipids which may be potential adhesion/communication molecules into embryo membranes (in particular through carbohydrate-carbohydrate interactions, or through carbohydrate-protein interactions).

It is well established that cells can communicate through the low avidity binding characteristics of carbohydrate-carbohydrate interaction. These low affinity reactions are believed to be involved in cellular communication and adhesion (Bovin, 1996; Hakomori 1996; Mikhalehik et al 2000; Wang et al 2001). Natural glycolipids can be added to the surfaces of embryo and endometrial membranes, thus modifying their carbohydrate expression (examples 6 and 7). Such modified cells may then potentially be available to react either with reactive carbohydrates expressed on the endometrial lining (membrane or mucus) or may react with carbohydrate reactive proteins expressed on the endometrial surfaces.

Inserting Modified (Biotinylated) Glycolipids in Embryo Membranes as a Mechanism to Attach Biotinylated Molecules through an Avidin Bridge

Like the natural glycolipids (examples 6 and 7) biotinylated glycolipids are able to be inserted into the embryo membranes including the zona pellucida (example 8).

The biotinylated ganglioside once inserted into the membrane is able to be reacted with avidin, which can then pick up biotinylated molecules, thus modifying the surface of the embryo (examples 9-14).

Attaching IgG Membrane/Mucus Adhesion Molecules to Embryos Membranes

Several mechanisms were examined to show the attachment of IgG adhesion molecules to cell membranes. These included direct attachment of an antibody which could react with the membrane of another cell for example red cells (examples 9 and 10) and endometrial cells (example 12). Example 9 demonstrates the direct rosetting method, with an antibody specific to the red cell protein antigen D. Alternatively a multistage adhesion can be induced where some components are added to the embryo and others to the cell for adhesion. This can be seen in Example 10, where the carbohydrate specific IgG attachment molecule BiolgG^(A,B), was inserted into RBCs which adhered to embryos expressing the reactive antigens. An alternative interaction was also demonstrated, where embryos were coated with BiolgG^(A,B), and were shown to complex with RBCs inserted with BioG-avidin.

Additionally a bridging molecule such as anti-IgG could also be used to bridge IgG attached to both the membranes of the embryo and another cell, in this case red cells (example 11) which it is desired the embryo attaches to. In this example, (example 11), human anti-D sensitised RBCs were used to demonstrate the adhesive properties of embryos inserted with BiolgG, an immunoglobulin G with no specificity to any known antigen. Addition of anti-IgG to the BiolgG embryos and anti-D sensitised RBCs caused indirect resetting between the two cell types. Ideally an antigen, which is expressed on endometrial cells but is absent on the embryo, would be an appropriate antibody target. In the absence of easy availability of such a reagent and also to demonstrate a further potential application, we inserted antigens into the endometrial cell membrane for which a a biotinylated antibody was available. These inserted antigens become integral parts of the cell membrane and as such can be considered part of the membrane (example 6). Blood group antigens Le^(b) and ALe^(b) were added to endometrial cells and the corresponding biotinylated antibodies were attached to embryo's via BioG-avidin (example 12). The attachment of the endometrial cells to the embryo's proves the mechanism of modified embryo induced adhesion. Additionally this process opens up the opportunity to both insert molecules into the embryo and the recipient (e.g. lavage) to induce/enhance adhesion between the embryo and the recipient.

These various examples illustrate the use of IgG that can target either carbohydrate or protein antigens as attachment molecules for various cell membrane attachment interactions.

Attaching Lectin Membrane/Mucus Adhesion Molecules to Embryos Membranes

Lectins are non-immunological carbohydrate binding proteins. In example 13, the biotinylated lectin Ulex europaeus (BioUE) was inserted into embryos to demonstrate a direct adhesive interaction with group C RBCs bearing the H type 2 carbohydrate antigen (specific antigen for UE). Additional the same phenomenon can be demonstrated with binding to endometrial cell culture (example 14)

Because the mucins will cover endometrial cells in utero the ability to modify the embryo to react with antigens on mucus was also demonstrated. Lectins were used for this purpose but antibodies reactive with mucus would be equally as applicable. In example 13 Ulex europaeus modified embryos were reacted with H type 2 containing mucus (obtained from human group O salivary secretions). In an inhibition assay the addition of H type 2 bearing mucus inhibited red cell rosette formation, illustrating that mucus had bound to the UE inserted embryos thus preventing the lectin reacting with red cells.

Proving the Embryo is Unharmed by the Processes Above.

An essential requirement of any implantation therapy is that it must not induce any detrimental effects on the normal fetal growth of the treated embryo, or the off spring, or the mother. Preliminary experiments with BioG inserted embryos showed no difference in morphology or zona hatching rate from control embryos during 5 days of in vitro culture (Example 15). Similarly, no difference from control embryos was noted (although not subjected to statistical analysis) between the pregnancy, live birth rate and normalcy of offspring in treated embryos (BioG, BioG/Av/BiolgG, ZI and ZF) when transferred into recipient mice (Example 16 and Example 17). Ultimately, the ongoing fertility rate and second generation pups of the offspring resulting from treated embryos was apparently normal (Example 18).

EXAMPLES Example 1

Biotinylated gangliosides (BioG) were prepared using a modified procedure described by Wilchek and Bayer (1987). The extraction and purification of porcine gangliosides is carried out using established techniques (Karlsson 1987, Ladisch et al. 1987, Ledeen et al. 1982).

-   -   1. Dried gangliosides purified from porcine brains, were         reconstituted in PBS with the aid of sonification.     -   2. The ganglioside sialic residues were oxidized by the addition         of sodium m-periodate.     -   3. The solution was subjected to 24 hr dialysis to remove the         resulting peroxide.     -   4. The oxidised ganglioside was incubated with biotin         amidocaproyl hydrazide (Sigma B-3770) for 1 hr.     -   5. The solution was subjected to further overnight dialysis in         water to remove excess biotin amidocaproyl hydrazide.     -   6. The resulting solution was dried via rota evaporation and         reconstituted in 50% methanol water. Further evaporation was         performed under nitrogen gas in a reduced pressure desiccator         overnight.

Example 2

Biotinylated immunoglobulin G was prepared using a method described by O'Shannessy 1990). Using similar procedures to those outlined in Example 1, the IgG was oxidised with a periodate solution and incubated with biotin amidocaproyl hydrazide.

Example 3

Optimum BioG insertion concentrations and conditions were established by labelling the inserted BioG RBCs with avidin-FITC. The results are outlined in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Fluorescent signal of human RBCs inserted with a range of BioG and labelled with avidin-FITC concentrations. Avidin-FITC BioG mg/ml mg/ml 10 5 2.5 0 0.90 ++++ ++++ +++ − 0.45 ++++ ++++ +++ − 0.33 ++++ ++++ +++ − 0.16 ++++ ++++ +++ − 0 − − − −

The optimum insertion concentration of BioG was 5 mg/ml. The minimum concentration of avidin required for adequate detection of BioG at 5 mg/ml concentration, was 0.16 mg/ml. The optimum minimum insertion time was determined to be 1 hour as seen in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Fluorescent signal of human RBCs incubated with BioG for a variety of times, then labelled with avidin-FITC. Hours of incubation 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.5 2 4 6 26 +++ +++ +++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++

The amount of fluorescent signal score for the 2 hr incubation tube reduced from 4+ to 3+ after avidin labelling 5 days post insertion, suggesting minimal loss of inserted molecules over time.

Example 4

Stock glycolipids for insertion were prepared in solvent free saline to protect sensitive cells such as embryos from solvent exposure during insertion treatment.

-   -   1. Purified dried glycolipids (e.g. Le^(b), A, or biotinylated         gangiloside) were dissolved in a glass tube with 50%         methanol/water to give a 10 mg/ml solution.     -   2. The solution was filtered with a 0.22 micron solvent         resistant filter into a sterile glass tube.     -   3. A 150 μl aliquot of the solution was marked on the side of         the glass tube to indicate the end point of evaporation. A         further 850 μl aliquot was placed in the glass tube to give a         total of 1 ml (containing 10 mg).     -   4. The tube was placed under a gentle stream of nitrogen gas in         a dry heat block at 50° C. until the meniscus was reduced to the         marked evaporation line.     -   5. The solution was made up to 200 μl with a balanced salt         solution of sterile PBS by adding 20 μl of 10× phosphate         buffered saline (PBS) and 30 μl of 18 mΩ water.     -   6. The final 50 mg/ml solution was aliquoted into sterile         microcentrifuge tubes and frozen at −70° C. or freeze dried (to         be later reconstituted with water).     -   7. Samples from the stock solution were then taken for dilution         in cell culture media for transformation experiments.

Example 5

The requirement for plasma or serum in the insertion media was shown not to be necessary. The ability for fluoresceinisothiocyanate-labelled avidin-(avidin-FITC Sigma A-2901) to bind to biotin formed the basis of detecting inserted BioG in RBCs when viewed under microscope fluorescence at 470 nm. In this study, a comparison in the degree of fluorescent signal in avidin-FITC treated BioG human RBCs was carried out for insertion solutions in a variety of tissue culture or serology media.

-   -   1. 5 μl of packed RBCs were mixed with 30 μl of 2 mg/ml BioG         (final conc. 12 μg/ml of packed RBCs) in one of the following         aqueous media for 2 hrs at 37° C. with frequent mixing. The         range of aqueous media included: Celpresol (CSL Biosciences,         Australia), M2 media mouse embryo handling media (Sigma M5910),         SQC mouse culture media (Vitrolife, Sweden), Medicult human         embryo culture media (Medicult Denmark) and PBS (made in-house).     -   2. The RBCs were washed 3× in saline by centrifugation and         incubated with 9.5 μl of avidin-FITC for 1 hr at 37° C.     -   3. The cells were washed 3× in saline and viewed under a         fluorescent microscope at 470 nm.

The concentrations and fluorescent microscopy results are outlined in Table 3.

TABLE 3 Fluorescent signal of human RBCs inserted with BioG and labelled with Avidin-FITC Celpresol PBS SQC Insertion albumin - albumin - albumin - M2 media free free free albumin 10% plasma Experimental +++ ++ +++ ++++ ++ Negative − − − − − Controls

The presence of a clear fluorescent signal in both M2 and SQC cell culture media deemed them to appropriate for routine embryo insertion experiments.

Example 6

The ability of natural glycolipids to insert into cell membranes was tested by inserting glycolipid A into endometrial cells. Insertion was confirmed by labelling with anti-A then by secondarily labelling with anti-mouse immunoglobulin conjugated to fluoresceinisothiocyanate (anti-mouse Ig-FITC) and detected by fluorescent microscopy.

A 5 million/ml heterogeneous solution of murine endometrial cells was prepared by dissecting the uterine horn, scraping out the endometrial tissue, and incubating the tissue at 37° C. for 1.5 hrs in 500 μl of 0.25% pronase and 1 ml of 0.5% collagenase. After incubation the cells were washed and suspended in DMEM-F12 culture media

Glycolipid A was inserted and detected in endometrial cells using the following method:

-   -   1. Freeze dried glycolipid A was resuspended in DMEM-F12 to give         a 10 mg/ml and a 1 mg/ml solution.     -   2. Three micro-centrifuge tubes were prepared each containing a         50 μl solution of 5 M/ml endometrial cells. The following         reagents were added to each micro-centrifuge tube a) 50 μl         glycolipid A (10 mg/ml), b) 50 μl glycolipid A (1 mg/ml) and c)         50 μl CMF(calcium magnesium free)-HBSS. The cells were incubated         overnight at room temperature.     -   3. After each treatment step the endometrial cells were washed 3         times by resuspending in M2 media and centrifuging at 2000 rpm         for 3 minutes. The washed cells were then resuspended in 50 μl         of M2 media.     -   4. Endometrial cells were subsequently reacted with anti-A by         adding 50 μl of anti-A murine monoclonal antibody to each         micro-centrifuge tube and incubating at room temperature for 30         minutes.     -   5. To test the presence by fluorescence 10 μl of mouse anti-Ig         FITC was added to each micro-centrifuge tube containing the         washed cells and incubated in dark conditions at room         temperature for 30 minutes.     -   6. Endometrial cells were mounted on glass slides and viewed         under a fluorescence microscope using a 470 nm filter and         photographed at 200-400× magnification.     -   7. The results of the experiment is outlined in Table 4

TABLE 4 Fluorescent signal of murine endometrial cells inserted with blood group A glycolipids. Insertion glycolipid Fluorescence Glycolipid A ++++ 10 mg/ml Glycolipid A +++ 1 mg/ml Negative − Control

Example 7

The ability of natural glycolipids to insert into cell membranes was tested by inserting natural glycolipids A and Le^(b) separately in murine embryos.

Glycolipid A and Le^(b) were inserted into the cell membranes of zona pellucida free (ZF) murine embryos from blastocyst to hatched blastocyst stage. The insertion was confirmed by labelling with anti-A or anti-Le^(b) respectively, then by secondarily labelling with anti-mouse immunoglobulin conjugated to fluoresceinisothiocyanate (anti-mouse Ig-FITC) and detected under fluorescent microscopy.

Embryo insertion was performed in both M2 (Sigma M5910) and SQC (Vitrolife, Sweden) media using the following method:

-   -   1. Super-ovulated mouse embryos on day 3.5 post coitus were         obtained as described in Example 16.     -   2. Embryos from each mouse were stored in sterile         microcentrifuge tubes with M2 media.     -   3. Culture dishes were prepared with 3×50 μl micro-drops of         media overlaid with mineral oil.     -   4. Embryos with zonas intact (ZI) were placed in 0.25% pronase         (Sigma P8811) in CMF-HBSS media for 6 minutes at 37° C. until         the zona had disappeared. All embryos were zona free (ZF).     -   5. All embryos were washed 3 times in M2 media after each         treatment step by placing them into a fresh 100 μl drop of media         using a pulled glass capillary tube and syringe.     -   6. The following reagents were added to separate SQC         micro-drops: a) 50 μl Glycolipid A (10 mg/ml), b) 50 μl         Glycolipid Le^(b) (5 mg/ml) and c) 50 μl M2 media. Equal numbers         of ZF embryos were placed in the micro-drops in a 5% CO₂, 37° C.         incubator for 120 minutes.     -   7. Embryos were subsequently cultured in a corresponding binding         antibody for each glycolipid. The following reagents were added         to separate micro-drops: a) 40 μl anti-A murine monoclonal, b)         40 μl anti-Le^(b) murine monoclonal and c) 40 μl anti-A murine         monoclonal. The embryos from each group were placed in the SQC         micro-drops and returned to the 5% CO₂, 37° C. incubator for 30         minutes.     -   8. Embryos were transferred to a SQC micro-drop containing 20 μl         anti-mouse Ig-FITC and cultured in the drop for 1 hr in dark         culture conditions (in 5% CO₂, 37° C.).     -   9. Embryos were mounted on a glass microscope slide in a 2 μl         drop of media and overlaid with 2 μl of mineral oil.     -   10. The slides were viewed under a fluorescent microscope using         a 470 nm filter and photographed at 20-40× magnification.

The results of each experiments performed are outlined in Table 5.

TABLE 5 Fluorescent signal of murine embryo's inserted with glycolipids A and Le^(b) and labelled with anti-A or anti-Le^(b) respectively, then secondarily labelled with anti-murine Ig FITC Insertion Le^(b) glycolipid A glycolipid glycolipid inserted inserted Experimental ++ ++++ Negative − − Controls

Example 8

Insertion of biotinylated gangliosides (BioG) into the cell membranes of both zona pellucida intact (ZI) and zona pellucida free (ZF) murine embryos from 2-cell stage through to hatched blastocyst stage was confirmed by a positive signal of avidin conjugated to fluoresceinisothiocyanate (avidin-FITC) detected under fluorescent microscopy. Some ZI embryos underwent zona removal post BioG insertion and pre avidin-FITC treatment to clearly visualise the degree of BioG insertion in the cell membrane. Embryo insertion was performed in both M2 (Sigma M5910) and SQC (Vitrolife, Sweden) media using the following method:

-   -   1. Collection of super-ovulated mouse embryos on day 1.5 to day         3.5 post coitus was performed as described in Example 16.     -   2. Embryos from each mouse were split equally between control         and experimental groups where possible and transported from the         animal facility to laboratory in separate sterile         microcentrifuge tubes with M2 media.     -   3. A culture dish was prepared with 50 μl micro-drops of media         overlaid with mineral oil and the following reagents in separate         drops: a) 5 μl of BioG (50 mg/ml stock), and b) 5 μl of         avidin-FITC (1 mg/ml).     -   4. Embryos destined for ZF insertion treatment were placed in         0.5% pronase (Sigma P8811) in M2 media for 6 minutes at 37° C.         until the zona had disappeared.     -   5. All embryos were washed 3 times in M2 media after each         treatment step by placing them into a fresh 100 μl drop of media         using a pulled glass capillary tube and syringe.     -   6. ZF and ZI embryos were placed in the BioG micro-drop for 1-2         hours under appropriate culture conditions.     -   7. A group of ZI embryos were treated with 0.5% protease prior         to further treatment.     -   8. Embryos were subsequently cultured in the avidin-FITC drop         for 1 hr in dark culture conditions.     -   9. Embryos were mounted on a glass microscope slide in a 2 μl         drop of Citiflour (R1321, Agar Scientific, NZ) and overlaid with         2 μl of mineral oil, to replace the need for a cover-slip. A         felt tip marker was used to circle the location of the specimen.     -   10. The slides were viewed under a fluorescent microscope at         250-500× magnification using a 470 nm filter.

The results are outlined in Table 6.

TABLE 6 Fluorescent signal emitted from embryos inserted with BioG and conjugated with avidin-FITC. The data represents the results of six experiments carried out on embryos at different developmental stages from 2-cell to hatched blastocysts. Zona free (ZF) embryos were treated with pronase, while hatched blastocysts had autonomously lost the zona. Some embryos were treated with avidin-FITC after further culture post BioG insertion. Unhatched blastocysts and zona intact (ZI) embryos were BioG treated with the zona retained Embryonic Expt stage Outline Result - fluorescent signal I 2-Cell a) ZI M2 media controls a) nil embryos b) ZI M2 media experimental b) cells +++ (zona ++++) freshly c) ZI SQC media controls c) nil retrieved d) ZI SQC media experimental d) cells +++ (zona ++++) II 4-Cell cultured a) ZF controls a) nil from 2-Cell b) ZF experimental b) +++ c) ZI controls c) nil d) ZI experimental d) +++ III late morula a) ZF control embryos a) faint homogenous signal cultured from b) BioG then pronase b) ++ to +++ 2-Cell c) pronase then BioG c) +++ to ++++ Clear signal for polar body regardless of treatment IV unhatched and a) hatched controls a) nil (except in atretic cells) hatched b) hatched experimental b) ++ (stronger in atretic cells) blastocyst c) unhatched controls c) nil except for atretic cells cultured from d) unhatched experimental d) cells +++ (zona ++++) 2-Cell e) arrested embryos e) cells +++ (zona nil) all treated with BioG then avidin- no difference in morphology FITC 24 hrs later between control and experimental 24 hrs post BioG V blastocyst to a) ZI BioG and avidin-FITC a) + cells (zona ++ to ++++) hatched day-6 blastocyst b) ZI BioG day-2 with further b) + cells (zona ++ to ++++) cultured from culture then avidin-FITC day-6 2-Cell VI unhatched BioG treatment 24 hours blastocysts previous as unhatched blastocysts then avidin-FITC treated as hatching blast.s a) pronase then avidin-FITC a) cells +++ to ++++ b) avidin-FITC then pronase b) cells +++ to ++++ c) avidin-FITC no pronase c) cells + (zona +++ to ++++)

Example 9

Direct adhesion between an embryo and RBCs was demonstrated using the biotinylated IgG specific for the protein antigen D (BiolgG^(D)). In this example, D+ve human RBCs were shown to positively rosette to mouse zone free embryos inserted with BioG/Av/BiolgG^(D). No resetting occurred on the surface of untreated mouse embryos nor those inserted with BioG/Av only.

Mouse zone free embryos were inserted with BioG/Av and BiolgG^(D) using the following method:

-   -   1. Zona free day 3.5 mouse embryos were incubated at 37° C. for         1.5 hours in a 50 μl microdrop containing 5 μl of BioG (50         mg/ml), then washed 3× in M2 media.     -   2. The embryos underwent a 2^(nd) conjugation step where they         were exposed to 5 μl of avidin (1 mg/ml) in a 50 μl micro-drop         of media for 60 minutes at 37° C., and washed.     -   3. Finally, the embryos were incubated in a 50 μl microdrop         containing 25 μl of BiolgG^(D) (titre 1:1000) for 1 hour at 37°         C.     -   4. The embryos were washed 3× in M2 media and placed in a fresh         well of M2 media ready for rosetting with D+ve human RBCs.

The results are outlined in Table 7.

TABLE 7 BioIgG^(D) transformed mouse embryo rosette experiment. D +ve human RBCs adhere to mouse embryos that are transformed with BioIgG^(D) (Exp. group 3). This demonstrates the ability for antibody transformed embryos to adhere to a protein antigen on surrogate endometrial cells. No RBC adhesion was observed in either negative control groups. Experimental group 1 2 3 Embryo configuration untreated BioG/Av BioG/Av/BioIgG^(D) RBC type D+ve D+ve D+ve Rosetting nil nil ++

Example 10

Direct adhesion between an embryo and RBC was demonstrated using the biotinylated IgG specific for the carbohydrate antigens A,B (BiolgG^(A,B)). In this example, two combinations of insertion were tested. In the first instance, BiolgG^(A,B) inserted mouse RBC's were shown to rosette to mouse embryos that are known to express an antigen reactive with IgG^(A,B). Additionally, mouse RBC's inserted with BioG and avidin only, positively adhered to mouse embryos sensitised (coated) with BiolgG^(A,B).

Mouse RBCs were inserted with BioG/Av and BioG/Av/BiolgG^(A,B) using the following method:

-   -   1. 5 μl of BioG (50 mg/ml) was added to 500 μl of 10% mouse RBCs         in PBS (final conc. 5 μg/μl of packed RBCs) and incubated on a         mixer at 37° C. for 1 hour. The cells were washed 3× in PBS and         resuspended to 500 μl.     -   2. 50 μl of 1 mg/ml avidin was added to the BioG inserted RBC         solution (final conc. avidin 0.1 mg/ml) and incubated on a mixer         at 37° C. for 1 hour. The cells were washed 3× in PBS and         resuspended to give a 10% solution of RBCs. These BioG/Av         inserted cells were used to react with embryo's sensitised with         BiolgG^(A,B)     -   3. A 100 μL aliquot of BioG/Av inserted RBCs was mixed with 50         μl of BiolgG^(A,B) (10 μg/10 μl of packed RBCs) and incubated on         a mixer at 37° C. for 1 hour. The cells were washed 3× with PBS         ready for the rosetting with the embryos. These         BioG/Av/BiolgG^(A,B) inserted cells were used to react directly         with embryos.

Mouse embryos were sensitised with IgG^(A,B) using the following method:

-   -   1. ZF and ZI day-3.5 embryos were incubated in a microdrop of 25         μl of M2 media and 25 μl of BiolgG^(A,B) (final conc. 0.1 mg/ml)         for 1 hour at room temperature.     -   2. These BiolgG^(A,B) sensitised embryos were washed 2× in M2         media and placed in a fresh well of M2 media ready for rosetting         by exposure to the BioG/Av inserted mouse RBCs.

The results are outlined in Table 8.

TABLE 8 Embryo BioIgG^(A,B) rosette experiment. Group 1 ZF embryos rosette with BioG/Av/BioIgG^(A,B) mouse RBCs. Group 2 ZF and ZI embryos sensitised with BioIgG^(A,B) rosette with BioG/Av transformed RBCs. Group 3 embryos represent a negative control and fail to rosette with BioG/Av transformed RBCs. Experimental Group 1 2 3 mRBCs BioG/Av/BioIgG^(A,B) BioG/Av BioG/Av configuration embryo untreated BioIgG^(A,B) treated untreated configuration ZF binding +++ +++ − ZI binding − ++ − A grade from nil to 4+ was allocated to each group of embryos: nil no binding + <10 RBCs ++ 10-20 RBCs ++++ >50 RBCs

Example 11

The ability of modified embryos to adhere (through an immunological bridge) to antigens on other cell types was tested. In this example, the adhesion molecule was classified as biotinylated non-specific IgG and anti IgG [BiolgG+anti-IgG] which was conjugated in a third step to the inserted molecules BioG and avidin, on the cell membranes and zona pellucida of murine embryos. To confirm the complete insertion of this complex, IgG sensitised RBCs were allowed to rosette. The IgG that is attached to the anti-D sensitised RBCs is used as an antigen for the adhesion molecule— thus the antibody coating on the cells essentially acts as a cell bound protein antigen. This model is considered an indirect demonstrative example of adhesion, because anti-IgG is required to complete the adhesive complex.

Insertion, conjugation and adhesion of IgG sensitised RBCs was carried out as follows:

-   -   1. Anti-D sensitised RBCs were made by incubating 400 μl of         human serum containing human anti IgG with 200 μl of RhD+ve         human RBCs for 1 hr at 37° C. The RBCs were then washed in         Celpresol and made up to a 5% solution for the rosette         technique.     -   2. All embryos were retrieved from super-ovulated mice at the         2-cell stage and entered into the experiment either on the day         of retrieval or after 48 hours of cell culture in SQC media         (late morula to blastocysts stage).     -   3. BioG insertion was performed on both zona intact and zona         free embryos with either M2 or SQC used as the insertion media.     -   4. The embryos then underwent a 2^(nd) conjugation step where         they were exposed to, 5 μl of avidin (1 mg/ml) in a 50 μl of         micro-drop of media for 60 minutes at 37° C. in appropriate         culture conditions for each media type (i.e. CO₂ or         atmospheric).     -   5. The washed embryos underwent a 3rd conjugation with 5 μl of         BiolgG (1 mg/ml) in a micro-drop of media for 30 minutes at 37°         C., then washed.     -   6. The embryos were placed in a micro-drop consisting of 25 μl         of M2 media and 25 μl of monoclonal anti-IgG for 30 minutes at         22° C.     -   7. The treated and control embryos were washed and placed in         separate drops of M2 media. A stream of either 50% anti-D         sensitised RBCs or 50% untreated D+ve RBCs were gently blown         over the embryos using a pulled capillary pipette attached to a         syringe.     -   8. After 10 minutes at room temperature, the embryos were gently         transferred to fresh media micro-drops using a wide bore         capillary pipette (170 μm diameter) and assessed for RBC         adherence under an inverted microscope at 250× magnification         through the central plane of focus. A grade from nil to 4+ was         allocated to each group of embryos:

nil no binding + <10 RBCs ++ 10-20 RBCs ++++ >50 RBCs

The results are shown in Table 9. The adhesion of large quantities of anti-D sensitised RBCs to embryos (2-cell to blastocysts) indicates positive insertion of Bio/AV/BiolgG and demonstrates the ability of transformed embryos to adhere. There was no difference in the adhesion score between M2 and SQC insertion media. The adhesion score was moderately greater in the zona intact embryos than the zona free embryos.

TABLE 9 Adhesion scores of BioG/Av/BioIgG transformed embryos when exposed to either anti-D sensitised or untreated group D +ve RBCs. Experiment I compares the adhesion in zona intact 2-Cells when steps were carried out in M2 or SQC media. Experiment II assesses adhesion in late morula (LM) to blastocyst (blast) stage zona intact embryos. Experiment III compares adhesion in LM-blastocyst zona intact and zona free. Zona Stage of free Embryo embryos Y/N treatment type RBCs Adherence Expt. I 2-Cell N BioG/Av/BioIgG D +ve − M2 media 2-Cell N BioG/Av/BioIgG anti-D +++ M2 media sensitised 2-Cell N BioG/Av/BioIgG D +ve − SQC media 2-Cell N BioG/Av/BioIgG anti-D +++ SQC media sensitised Expt. II LM-Blast N BioG/Av/BioIgG anti-D ++++ sensitised LM-Blast N BioG/Av/BioIgG D +ve − LM-Blast N Control anti-D − untreated sensitised LM-Blast N Control D +ve − untreated Expt. III LM-Blast N BioG/Av/BioIgG anti-D +++ sensitised LM-Blast N Control D +ve − untreated LM-Blast Y BioG/Av/BioIgG anti-D ++ sensitised LM-Blast Y Control D +ve − untreated

Example 12

Carbohydrate antigens and anti-carbohydrate binding antibodies were utilised to demonstrate adhesion between embryo and endometrial cells. In this example both embryo and endometrial cells were modified with corresponding binding molecules (IgG antibodies directed against carbohydrate antigens and antibody reactive glycolipid antigens).

Two series of insertion were tested. In the first the biotinylated antibody directed against the ALe^(b) antigen (BiolgG^(ALeb)) was prepared (example 2) and inserted into embryo cell membranes via the BioG/avidin bridging mechanism while endometrial cell membranes were modified with the corresponding glycolipid ALe^(b) antigen. In the second combination biotinylated antibody directed against the Le^(b) antigen (BiolgG^(Leb)) was inserted into the embryo cell membranes via the BioG/avidin bridge while endometrial cell membranes were modified with the Le^(b) glycolipid antigen.

Glycolipid modified endometrial cells were shown to adhere to the antibody modified embryos.

Murine endometrial cells were prepared as follows;

-   -   1. A 5-10 million/ml heterogeneous solution of murine         endometrial cells was prepared as described in example 6.     -   2. Three micro-centrifuge tubes each containing 50 μl of 5-10         million/ml endometrial cells were prepared. The following         reagents were added to separate tubes a) 50 μl ALe^(b)         glycolipid (5 mg/ml) b) 50 μl Le^(b) glycolipid (5 mg/ml) and c)         50 μl DMEM-F12. All cells were incubated overnight at room         temperature to allow the glycolipid molecules to insert.     -   3. The endometrial cells for the ALe^(b) experiment were treated         with a fluorescent stain by adding 10 μl of acridine         orange/ethidium bromide solution to a 50 μl of endometrial         cells. All cells were incubated in dark conditions at 37° C. for         30 minutes. This fluoro'chrome staining of the endometrial cells         prior to embryo contact assists in identifying endometrial cells         adhered to embryos by fluorescent microscopy.     -   4. The endometrial cells were washed 3 times by suspending in         CMF-HBSS and centrifuging at 2000 rpm for 3 minutes.

Mouse zona free embryos were inserted with BioG/Av and BiolgG^(ALeb) or BiolgG^(Lab) using the following method:

-   -   1. Collection of super-ovulated mouse embryos on day 3.5 post         coitus was performed as described in Example 16.     -   2. Micro-drop culture dishes were prepared with 50 μl of M2         media overlaid with mineral oil.     -   3. Embryos from each mouse were placed in SQC media microdrops         and incubated in a 5% CO₂, 37° C. incubator overnight.     -   4. Embryos with zonas intact were placed in 0.25% pronase in         CMF-HBSS media for 6-8 minutes until the zona had disappeared.     -   5. All embryos were washed 3 times in M2 media after each         treatment step by placing into a fresh drop of M2 media using a         pulled glass capillary tube and syringe.     -   6. Zona free day 4.5 experimental mouse embryos were incubated         at 37° C. for 1.5 hours in a 50 μl SQC micro-drop containing 5         μl of BioG (50 mg/ml).     -   7. The experimental embryos underwent a second conjugation step         where they were exposed to 5 μl of avidin (1 mg/ml) in a 50 μl         micro-drop of media for 60 minutes at 37° C.     -   8. Finally, the experimental embryos were split into two groups.         Group 1 were placed in a 50 μl micro-drop containing 25 μl of         BiolgG^(ALeb) at 5 mg/ml. Group 2 in a 50 μl micro-drop         containing 25 μl of BiolgG^(Lab) at 5 mg/ml. Embryos were         incubated for 1 hour at 37° C.

BiolgG^(ALeb) and BiolgG^(Lab) transformed mouse embryos were subsequently immersed in the corresponding modified endometrial cells to test for attachment in a two step process.

-   -   1. Micro-centrifuge tubes were prepared with the following: a)         acridine orange stained ALe^(b) glycolipid modified endometrial         cells into which was placed BioG/Av/BiolgG^(ALeb) inserted         embryos; b) unstained Le^(b) glycolipid modified endometrial         cells into which was placed BioG/Av/BiolgG^(Leb) inserted         embryos.     -   2. The tubes containing the endometrial cells and embryos were         gently mixed for 30 minutes at 37° C. Contents of each         micro-centrifuge tube were transferred to a 4 well culture         plate.     -   3. Embryos were carefully removed from the wells and mounted on         glass slides. Embryos were viewed under a fluorescence         microscope and photographed at 200-400× magnification.

The results are outlined in Table 10

TABLE 10 Degree of attachment of ALeb and Leb glycolipid inserted endometrial cells to murine embryo's inserted with BioG/Av/BioIgGALeb and BioG/Av/BioIgGLeb respectively. Modifications to embryos and endometrial cells Embryo: BioG/ Av/BioIgG^(Leb) Embryo: BioG/Av/BioIgG^(ALeb) Endometrial Endometrial cells: ALe^(b) + AcOr cells: Le^(b) Cell attachment ++ ++ observed in bright field Cell attachment +++ ND observed under fluorescence AcOr = fluorochrome acridine orange Cell attachment scoring; + = 1-4 cells, ++ = 5-10 cells per embryo, +++ > 10 cells per embryo ND = Not Done

Example 13

The adhesive properties of Ulex europaeus inserted mouse embryos, was confirmed by direct adhesion to group O human RBCs by resetting. Ulex europaeus is a lectin that binds specifically to the carbohydrate antigen H type 2 present on the surface of group O human RBCs and in the mucus/saliva of group O individuals expressing the secretor phenotype. Adhesion of UE transformed embryos to secretor mucus was also demonstrated by the inhibition of rosetting with group O RBCs after prior exposure to the mucus.

Insertion and conjugation of embryos with UE was conducted as follows:

-   -   1. The zona pellucidae were removed from embryos by incubating         in a 100 μl microdrop of 0.25% pronase in M2 media at 37° C. for         6 minutes, then washed 3× in M2 media.     -   2. Embryos were incubated in a 50 μl microdrop of SQC media         containing 5 μl of 50 mg/ml BioG (final conc. 0.2 mg/ml) for 1.5         hrs at 37° C.     -   3. The washed embryos were incubated in a 50 μl microdrop of SQC         media containing 5 μl of avidin 1 mg/ml (final 0.1 mg/ml) for 1         hr at 37° C., then washed 3× in M2 media.     -   4. Finally the embryos were incubated in a 50 μl microdrop of         SQC media containing 25 μl of BioUE 100 μg/ml (final conc. 50         μg/ml) for 40 minutes at 37° C. After washing 3× in M2 media,         the embryos were placed in a fresh drop of M2 media, in         preparation for RBC resetting.     -   5. Group 3 and group 4 BioUE inserted embryos were incubated for         30 minutes at RT in a 50 μl drop of a 1:10 dilution of secretor         and non-secretor mucus (respectively). The embryos were placed         in a fresh drop of M2 media without washing in preparation for         RBC resetting.     -   6. All untreated, treated and mucus pre-exposed groups of         embryos, had a stream of group O RBCs gently aspirated around         them. After 10 minutes incubation at RT, the embryos were         carefully transferred to a fresh drop of M2 and the degree of         RBC attachment was observed under an inverted microscope as         described in Example 11.

The results are outlined in Table 11.

TABLE 11 Ulex europaeus transformed mouse embryo rosette and mucus inhibition experiment. Group O (H type 2 bearing) RBCs adhere to mouse embryos that are transformed with UE (Exp. group 2). This adhesion is inhibited by pre-exposure to O secretor H type 2 bearing mucus (Exp. group 3 -) but not by O non-secretor mucus (Exp. group 4) where the H type 2 antigen is absent. Experimental group 1 2 3 4 Embryo untreated BioG/Av/ BioG/Av/ BioG/Av/ configuration BioUE BioUE BioUE Mucus incubation nil nil O secretor O non-secretor RBC type O O O O Rosetting nil +++ nil +++ Cell attachment scoring + = 1-4 cells, ++ = 5-10 cells per embryo, +++ > 10 cell per embryo

Example 14

In this example both embryo and endometrial cells were modified with corresponding binding molecules. The biotinylated lectin Ulex europaeus (BioUE) was inserted into embryo cell membranes via the BioG/avidin bridging mechanism (BioG/Av/BioUE). Endometrial cell membranes were modified with glycolipid H type 2 and stained with pyronine Y. Fluorochrome staining of the endometrial cells prior to embryo adhesion assists in identification of bound endometrial cells when visualised by fluorescent microscopy.

Modified endometrial cells were shown to adhere to UE transformed embryos. In comparison, minimal attachment on the surface of untreated mouse embryos was observed.

Endometrial cells were inserted with H type 2 glycolipid and stained with pyronine Y by the following method.

-   1. A 5-10 million/ml heterogeneous solution of murine endometrial     cells was prepared (as per example 6). -   2. Two microcentrifuge tubes were prepared each containing a 1 ml     solution of 5-10 M/ml endometrial cells. The cells were subsequently     centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 3 minutes before aliquoting the     supernatant to leave 5 μl of packed endometrial cells in each tube.     100 μl of H type 2 glycolipid extracted from human group O red cell     membranes (10 mg/ml) was added to the experimental group of     endometrial cells and 100 μl of DMEM-F12 media added to the control     group of endometrial cells. All cells were incubated overnight at     room temperature. -   3. After each treatment step the endometrial cells were washed 3     times by resuspending in CMF-HBSS media and centrifuging at 2000 rpm     for 3 minutes. -   4. Endometrial cells were treated with pyronine Y by adding 20 μl of     pyronine Y (15 μg/ml) to each microcentrifuge tube and incubating at     37° C. in dark conditions. The cells were thoroughly washed.

Mouse zona free embryos were inserted with BioG/Av and BioUE using the following method:

-   -   1. Collection of super-ovulated mouse embryos on day 3.5 post         coitus was performed as described in example 16     -   2. Micro-drop culture dishes were prepared with 50 μl of SQC         media overlaid with mineral oil.     -   3. Embryos were placed in SQC media microdrops in 5% CO₂ and         incubated 37° C. overnight.     -   4. Embryos with zonas intact were placed in 0.25% protease in         CMF-HBSS media for 6-8 minutes until the zona had disappeared.     -   5. All embryos were washed 3 times in M2 media after each         treatment step by placing into a fresh drop of M2 media using a         pulled glass capillary tube and syringe. Embryos were split into         experimental and control groups. The experimental embryos         underwent the treatment outlined in steps 6-9; the control         embryos were incubated in M2 media for the equivalent length of         time.     -   6. Zona free day 4.5 mouse embryos were incubated at 37° C. for         1.5 hours in a 50 μl M2 micro-drop containing 5 μl of BioG (50         mg/ml).     -   7. The embryos underwent a second conjugation step where they         were exposed to 5 μl of avidin (1 mg/ml) in a 50 μl micro-drop         of media for 60 minutes at 37° C.     -   8. Finally, a micro-drop was prepared with 50 μl M2 and 25 μl of         BioUE (1 mg/ml). Experimental embryos were placed in the         micro-drop and incubated in for 1 hour at 37° C.

BioUE transformed mouse embryos were subsequently immersed in the modified endometrial cells to test for attachment in a two step process.

-   1. A 4-well culture dish was prepared with 2 wells each containing     50 μl of modified, and stained endometrial cells. Control embryos     and modified embryos were inserted into separate wells and gently     mixed for 30 minutes. -   2. Embryos were carefully removed from the wells and mounted on     glass slides. Embryos were viewed under a fluorescence microscope     and photographed at 200-400× magnification.

The results are outlined in Table 12.

TABLE 12 Attachment of murine embryo's inserted with BioG/Av/BioUE to endometrial cells inserted with H type 2 glycolipids (from red cell membranes). Modifications to embryos and endometrial cells Embryo: BioG/Av/BioUE Embryo: nil Endometrial cells: H type 2 + PY Endometrial cells: nil Attachment ++ +/− PY = fluorochrome pyronine Y Cell attachment scoring = + 1-4 cells, ++ = 5-10 cells, +++ > 10 cells per embryo ND = Not Done

Example 15

The viability of murine embryos following BioG insertion treatment was confirmed by continued culture and assessment of morphological development. Eleven 2-Cell mouse embryos underwent BioG insertion with subsequent wash steps and culture in a 50 μl micro-drop of SQC media overlaid with mineral oil. Sixteen control embryos were cultured in a separate micro-drop in the same 4-well culture dish (Nunc 176740). Forty-eight hours later there was no difference in morphology between the experimental and control embryos. All embryos had reached the expected late morula to early blastocyst stage of development. Equal numbers of embryos initiated zona hatching by Day 5 of culture.

Example 16

The viability of murine embryos treated with biotinylated ganglioside (BioG) was confirmed by the presence of implantation sites and live birth of pups after embryo transfer (ET) into recipient mice. The retrieval, treatment, and transfer of embryos were carried out on the same day at the animal facility. All embryo manipulations, molecular insertions and incubations were performed in M2 HEPES buffered media on a 37° C. heated microscope stage.

Donor Superovulation and Embryo Retrieval

Large and relatively predictable numbers of embryos can be collected for experiments by using fertility drugs to stimulate the ovaries of immature mice which are highly sensitised to follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).

Prepubescent (<35 day old) CBA/C57 F1 female mice were injected with 5IU of FSH (Folligon, Pharmaco, NZ) at 1700 and again 48 hours later with 5IU of human chorionic gonadotrophin (Pregnyl, Organon, NZ). Each mouse was immediately placed with a CBA male stud mouse of proven fertility and checked for a seminal plug the following morning. The donors were sacrificed by cervical dislocation on the morning of either Day 1.5 post coitus for the retrieval of 2-cell embryos or Day 3.5 for late morula to blastocysts. The uterine horns were excised from the abdomen using sterile technique and placed into a plastic petri dish where they were flushed with media to expel the embryos.

Embryo BioG Insertion

An equal number of high quality embryos were selected from each donor flushing and pooled together for experimental and control groups. Experimental embryos were placed in a 50 μl micro-drop of M2 media with 2.5-5 W of BioG (50 mg/ml) for 1-1.5 hrs at 37° C. The embryos were washed three times with M2 and placed in a micro-drop of M2 in preparation for transfer. Control embryos were processed through drops of media at the same time as experimental embryos.

Embryo Transfer (ET)

To obtain a receptive endometrium in recipient mice, it is necessary to create a state of pseudopregnancy by mating with a vasectomised male mouse. The act of coitus rescues the corpus luteum of ovulated follicles from demise and sustains progesterone production necessary for implantation to occur.

Recipient CBA/C57 F1 female mice in estrus (40-120 days old), were selected from the pool of mice and placed with a vasectomised male mouse of proven sterility. The time of mating was programmed so that recipients were synchronous for 2-Cell embryos transfers or asynchronous by minus 1 day for blastocyst stage transfers. Only recipients exhibiting a clearly identified seminal plug the following morning were selected as recipients.

The recipient mice were anaesthetised with 0.8 ml of Avertin (made in-house) and an incision was made in the side of the abdomen above the hip. The fat pad above the ovary was grasped with a serrafin clamp to withdraw the oviduct and uterus outside of the body. Using a 23-28 gauge needle, a hole was made in either the bursa of the ovary to expose the infundibulum for 2-Cell stage transfers, or the uterine horn for blastocyst stage transfers. Six to ten embryos were loaded (using a mouth piece) into a fire pulled and polished capillary pipette (approx. 150-170 μm in diameter) with mineral oil and air gaps to stabilise the embryos. The pipette was inserted into the prepared needle puncture site and the embryos expelled until the release of an air-gap was visible. The exposed reproductive tract was replaced into the abdominal cavity and the body wall and skin closed with suture. The mouse was identified with ear marking and observed until conscious.

Mice were housed singularly in cages until they were either sacrificed for identification of implantation sites or until they had given birth. The implantation (imps) and live birth (pups) rates are presented in Table 13 and 14.

All recipients were kept for 3-6 months post exposure to BioG for health assessment. The offspring were maintained for breeding of one litter to assess reproductive fitness in the second generation.

TABLE 13 Implantation rate (imps) and live-birth (pups) outcome of BioG and control embryos. Embryos were zona intact 2-cell embryos. Each transfer represents a single recipient mouse. Number of embryos Preg. Number of pups Transfer Treatment Transferred Y/N or imps. (%) Comment I BioG & BioG 6x 2-Cell Y Imps. Each group separated into separate uterine horns Control Control 6x 2-Cell BioG 2x (33%) Sacrificed day-7 pregnancy Control 2x (33%) II BioG & BioG 5x 2-Cell Y Pups 5x total Same uterine horn ET Control black mice BioG 3x black (60%) No noticeable difference in anatomy or growth between Different control 5x 2-Cell Control 2x grey (40%) BioG and control mice coloured grey mice ET mum died 1 day before weaning - ?stress pups III BioG & BioG 5x 2-Cell Y Pups 5x Same uterine horn ET Control black mice BioG 4x black (80%) No noticeable difference in anatomy or growth between Different Control 5x 2-Cell Control 1x grey (20%) BioG and control mice coloured grey mice pups IV Control 6x 2-Cell Y Pups 5x (83%) Born 19 days post ET - normal healthy pups V BioG 10x 2-Cell Y Pups 8x (80%) Born 18 days post ET Normal healthy pups VI Control 6x 2-Cell N — — VII BioG 10x 2-Cell N — Died 3 months post ET - unknown cause VIII BioG 10x 2-Cell Y Pups 8x (80%) Born 18 days post ET Normal healthy pups IX BioG 7x 2-Cell Y Pups 6x (85%) Born 18 days post ET Normal healthy pups X Control 8x 2-Cell Y Pups 5x (63%) Born 18 days post ET Normal healthy pups XI Control 10x 2-Cell Y Pups 6x (60%) Born 20 days post ET Normal healthy pups (1x runt)

TABLE 14 Implantation rate (imps %) and live-birth outcome (pups) of BioG and control embryos. Transfers were into recipient mice at the blastocyst stage zona intact. Day-3.5 embryos were transferred into day-2.5 (Expt XII-XV) or day-3.5 (Expt. XVI-XVIII) synchronised recipient mice. No. embryos Preg No. imps. Transfer Treatment Transferred Y/N Or pups Comment XII BioG 6x blasts Y Imps 4x Uterine ET (66)% day-2.5 recipient Sacrificed D10 of pregnancy XIII Control 6x blasts Y Imps 6x Uterine ET (100%) day-2.5 recipient Sacrificed D10 of pregnancy XIV BioG 6x blasts Y Imps 4x Uterine ET (66%) day-2.5 recipient Sacrificed D10 of pregnancy XV Control 8x blasts Y Imps 5x Uterine ET (63%) day-2.5 recipient Sacrificed D10 of pregnancy XVI Control 6x blasts Y Pups 4x Uterine ET (66%) day-3.5 Recipients Normal healthy pups XVII BioG 6x blasts Y Pups 3x Uterine ET (50%) day-3.5 Recipients Normal healthy pups XVIII BioG 6x blasts Y Pups 5x Uterine ET (83%) day-3.5 Recipients Normal healthy pups

The first indication that BioG 2-cell embryos were capable of implantation was in a recipient mouse that had 6 BioG inserted embryos replaced into one uterine horn and 6 untreated control embryos replaced into the other horn (Transfer I). An inspection of the excised uteri on Day 7 of pregnancy revealed 4 implantation sites in each horn.

The second experimental evidence showed that not only were BioG 2-Cell embryos capable of implantation but they also gave rise to live healthy pups. In transfers II and III, five embryos derived from a pure black strain of mice (C57 donor and stud) were inserted with BioG and replaced into the same uterine horn as five control embryos derived from a pure grey strain of mouse (CBA donor and stud). The resulting colour of the 10 offspring, combined from both recipient mothers, was 3 grey (control embryos) and 7 black (BioG) babies.

Further ET experiments utilising embryos at two different stages of development, 2-cell and blastocyst, revealed similar pregnancy and live birth rates between BioG embryos and untreated control embryos for both stages of development. Overall, 8 out of 9 embryo transfers of BioG embryos resulted in a pregnancy with a live birth rate of 72.0%. The transfer of control embryos resulted in a pregnancy for 6 out of 7 ETs, with a 72.5% live birth rate.

In conclusion, the insertion of BioG in zona intact embryos from 2-cell to blastocyst stage does not appear to significantly impair the implantation and ongoing development of the embryo to live birth of healthy pups.

Example 17

The viability of zona free and zona intact murine embryos, inserted with biotinylated ganglioside (BioG) and conjugated sequentially with avidin (Av) and biotinylated IgG was confirmed by the birth of live pups post embryo transfer. Embryo retrieval and transfer of blastocysts was carried out using the methodology previously described in Example 16.

The data outlined in Table 15 showed similar live birth rates were observed for experimental and control treated embryos in both the ZI and ZF groups (experimental and control respectively: ZI 61% vs 33%, ZF 83% vs 71.5%). The primary aim of this series of experiments was not to compare implantation or live birth rates, hence the small numbers and subsequent lack of statistical analysis. The results do however confirm that ZI and ZF embryos inserted with the complete BioG/Av/BiolgG molecule give rise to healthy live pups.

Example 18

The reproductive fitness of experimental offspring and the health of the offspring proved to be similar to other inbred mice within the same animal facility. Offspring from embryo transfer experiments were paired in cages and allowed to breed. All pairs produced a litter within 75 days of birth. The mean size of the litter was 6.2 pups with normal appearance (Table 16).

TABLE 16 Number of pups delivered in 1^(st) litter from experimental offspring. Experimental Origin No. of pups in and Pair Treatment 1^(st) litter Example 4 VII BioG 8 Example 4 VIII BioG 5 Example 4 XI BioG 8 Example 5 I BioG/Av/BioIgG 4 Example 5 IV BioG/Av/BioIgG 7 Example 5 III Control ZI 5 Example 5 V BioG/Av/BioIgG 10 Example 5 VI Pronase 6 BioG/Av/BioIgG Example 5 VII Pronase 3 BioG/Av/BioIgG

TABLE 15 Pregnancy outcome, number of pups and live birth rate (LB % - number of pups divided by number of embryos transfer) of BioG/Av/BioIgG blastocysts (blasts.) zona intact and zona free. Treatment No. embryos Preg. No. pups Transfer type transferred Y/N (LB %) Comment I BioG/Av/BioIgG 6x blasts Y Pups Born 16 days post ET zona intact 5x Normal healthy pups 83% II Control 6x blasts N — — zona intact III Control 6x blasts Y Pups Born 16 days post ET zona intact 2x Normal healthy pups 33% IV BioG/Av/BioIgG 6x late morula Y Pups Born 17 days post ET zona intact 3x Normal healthy pups 50% V BioG/Av/BioIgG 6x late morula Y Pups Born 17 days post ET zona intact x3 Normal healthy pups 50% (1x died) VI Pronase 6x blasts Y Pups Born 16 days post ET BioG/Av/BioIgG zona free 6x Normal healthy pups 100%  (1x died) VII Pronase 6x blasts Y Pups Born 16 days post ET BioG/Av/BioIgG zona free 6x Normal healthy pups 100%  VIII Pronase 6x blasts Y Pups Born 17 days post ET Control zona free 5x Normal healthy pups 83% IX Pronase 6x blasts Y Pups Born 16 days post ET Control zona free 4x Normal healthy pups 66% X Pronase 6x blasts Y Pups Born 16 days post ET BioG/Av/BioIgG zona free 3x Normal healthy pups 50%

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1. A method of enhancing the implantation of an embryo into the endometrium of an animal including the steps: a. modifying the embryo to incorporate a glycolipid-attachment molecule construct; and b. transferring the modified embryo to the uterus of the animal; where a glycolipid is exogenously modified to incorporate a binding part adapted to enable the modified glycolipid to bind the attachment molecule.
 2. A method as claimed in claim 1 where the modified glycolipid is bound to an attachment molecule modified to incorporate a binding part adapted to enable the modified attachment molecule to bind to the modified glycolipid either indirectly through a bridging molecule or directly.
 3. A method as claimed in claim 2 where the modification to the glycolipid is to the carbohydrate portion of the glycolipid.
 4. A method as claimed in claim 2 wherein the attachment molecule is selected from the group consisting of: natural or synthetic carbohydrates or oligosaccharides; glycolipids; glycoconjugates; proteins or peptides; acyl groups; and polymers.
 5. A method as claimed in claim 4 where the attachment molecule is selected from the group consisting of: poly L-lysine; antibodies; lectins; polyvinyl pyrrolidine; and functionally equivalent derivatives thereof.
 6. A method as claimed in claim 5 wherein the attachment molecule is an immunoglobulin.
 7. A method as claimed in claim 6 wherein the attachment molecule is immunoglobulin G (IgG).
 8. A method as claimed in claim 2 where the attachment molecule is adapted to interact with the epithelial cells of the endometrium, mucus, mucin, or other endogenous or exogenously provided component of mucus.
 9. A method as claimed in claim 8 where the attachment molecule is an endometrial attachment molecule.
 10. A method as claimed in claim 2 where the glycolipid is selected from the group consisting of phosphoglycerides and sphingolipids.
 11. A method as claimed in claim 2 where the attachment molecule and the glycolipid are bound together by simple non-covalent binding interactions including ionic, van de Waals, water exclusion, electrostatic, hydrogen bonding and chelation binding.
 12. A method as claimed in claim 2 where the attachment molecule and the glycolipid are bound together by covalent bonding.
 13. A method as claimed in claim 2 where the attachment molecule and the glycolipid are bound together by avidin-biotin binding.
 14. A method as claimed in claim 13 where the binding part of the glycolipid comprises biotin and the binding part of the attachment molecule comprises avidin.
 15. A method as claimed in claim 13 where the binding part of the glycolipid comprises avidin and the binding part of the attachment molecule comprises biotin.
 16. A method as claimed in claim 13 where the attachment molecules and the glycolipid are bound together through a bridging molecule.
 17. A method as claimed in claim 16 where the bridging molecule comprises avidin and the binding part of both the attachment molecule and the glycolipid comprises biotin.
 18. A method as claimed in claim 16 wherein the bridging molecule comprises biotin and the binding part of both the attachment molecule and the glycolipid comprises avidin.
 19. A method as claimed in claim 2 where the attachment molecule and the glycolipid are bound together by a chelation interation between at least one chelator and a chelated metal ion.
 20. A method as claimed in claim 19 wherein the binding part of both the attachment molecule and the glycolipid comprises a chelator.
 21. A method as claimed in claim 19 wherein the chelator is a poly-histidine recombinant protein.
 22. A method as claimed in claim 19 where the chelator is attached covalently to the glycolipid.
 23. A method as claimed in claim 19 where the chelator is attached non-covalently to the glycolipid.
 24. A method as claimed in claim 23 wherein the chelator is attached to the glycolipid via biotin or avidin.
 25. A method as claimed in claim 23 where the chelated metal ion is Co²⁺, Ni²⁺ or Cu²⁺.
 26. A method as claimed in claim 2 where the glycolipid modified to incorporate a binding part is a biotinylated glycolipid.
 27. A method as claimed in claim 2 where the glycolipid of the ganglioside class that contains sialic acid groups, or a glycolipid of the neutral class that contains galactose.
 28. A method as claimed in claim 2 where the attachment molecule is a molecule that has a binding affinity for molecules on cell membranes including the mucus coat of cell membranes.
 29. A method as claimed in claim 28 wherein the molecules on cell membranes are receptor sites and/or blood group related antigens.
 30. A method as claimed in claim 29 where the cell membranes are endometrial.
 31. A method as claimed in claim 1 where the animal is a human or domesticated animal.
 32. A method as ,claimed in claim 1 where the modified embryo is prepared from a species, hybrid or variety of animal different from the species, hybrid or variety of animal of the uterus. 